1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado

Looking back on 1924]. Over 570,000 homes were destroyed, leaving an estimated 1.9 million homeless. A good idea of the tremendous devastation in Tokyo wrought by earthquake and fire. Media in category "1923 Great Kant earthquake". In revealing, disasters give students and scholars wonderful insights into human nature, cultural and social constructions, and illuminate the many relationshipsbetween man, nature, state, and even the cosmosthat define our existence. Attracting entrepreneurs, fugitives, traders, spies and drifters from every corner of the world, the port rose like a mirage in the desert, wrote one Japanese novelist. People fled toward the Sumida River, drowning by the hundreds when bridges collapsed. The earthquake, I suggest, fostered a culture of catastrophe defined by political and ideological opportunism, contestation, and resilience, as well as a culture of reconstruction in which elites sought to not only rebuild Tokyo, but also reconstruct the Japanese nation and its people. The Kant Massacre began on the day of the earthquake. Cookie Policy Devastating earthquakes rocked the Tokyo region many times prior to 1923. Founded as Japans first Foreign Settlement in 1859, five years after U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry forced the shogun to open Japan to the West, Yokohama had grown into a cosmopolitan city of half a million. Rural MPs opposed to a radical makeover of Tokyo were joined by many counterparts who represented urban electorates in Japan. A good idea of the tremendous devastation in Tokyo wrought by earthquake and fire. J.H. The Great Kanto Earthquake, sometimes called the Great Tokyo Earthquake, rocked Japan on September 1, 1923. [15] Other mechanism and fire whirl dynamics may exist. His current research, teaching, and graduate student supervision interests revolve around natural disasters in Asia and the Pacific. Theyre a reminder that Japan has faced brutally difficult rebuilding efforts, and succeeded in building back better. @4[`It ??~yXF\9IXS~nqBW%$|P9xXI}AoT@? As of August 2, 2018, a preliminary damage survey, led by the National Weather Service (NWS) in Sacramento, California, rated the July 26th fire whirl as an EF3 tornado with winds in excess of 143mph (230km/h). [35] Anti-Korean sentiment was heightened by fear of the Korean independence movement. About 140,000 people fell victim to this earthquake and the fires caused by it. Quoted in Nose Yoritoshi, Fukk seishin nahen ni ariya [Whereabouts is the spiritual restoration? It was the deadliest earthquake in Japanese history. Aria's birth mother is severely injured by debris and later dies, and this triggers a subplot about Aria's own heritage. The city of Yokohama was hit even worse than Tokyo was, although both were devastated. The cities of Tokyo and Yokohama, and surrounding towns and villages, have been largely if not completely destroyed by earthquake, fire and flood, with a resultant appalling loss of life and destitution and distress, requiring measures of urgent relief. The American Red Cross, of which Coolidge was the titular head, initiated a national relief drive, raising $12 million for victims. Shortly before noon on September 1, 1923, along a fault extending roughly northwest by Southeast in Sagami Bay, parts of these plates slipped past each other. [13] Szczepanski, Kallie. Corrections? The total death toll from the disaster is estimated at about 142,800. Aug 21, 2013. [16] A broader classification of fire whirls suggested by Forman A. Williams includes five different categories: [17] Yonemura tapped out a 19-word bulletinCONFLAGRATION SUBSEQUENT TO SEVERE EARTHQUAKE AT YOKOHAMA AT NOON TODAY. Alternate titles: Great Kanto earthquake of 1923. Like the 1923 quake, this one unleashed secondary disasters: a tsunami that washed away dozens of villages; mudslides; fires; and damage to the Fukushima Daiichi reactors that emitted radiation into the atmosphere (and constituted the worst nuclear accident since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986). Meanwhile, a wall of water surged from the fault zone toward the coast of Honshu. Transforming perception into reality required two key ingredients, namely political authority and money. Fire and tremors together claimed 90 percent of the homes in Yokohama and left 60% of Tokyos people homeless. If one were to pour money to earthquake sufferers, why not also direct some to impoverished rural communities as well, asked MP Miwa Ichitar. It lasted between 4 and 10 minutes. ", "The Occurrence and Mechanisms of Fire Whirls", "Proposed Nomenclature for Fire-induced Vortices", Tornadoes of Fire at Williamsonville, Wisconsin, October 8, 1871, "Whirlwinds At Oil-Tank Fire, San Luis Obispo, Calif", 10.1175/1520-0493(1926)54<161:WAOFSL>2.0.CO;2, "Intense Atmospheric Vortices Associated with a 1000 MW Fire", 10.1175/1520-0477(1980)061<0682:IAVAWA>2.0.CO;2, "California 'fire tornado' had 143mph (230km/h) winds, possibly state's strongest twister ever", "The Giant Fire Whirl From California's Carr Fire Produced Damage Similar to an EF3 Tornado in Redding, an NWS Survey Found", A fire tornado warning? More than this, however, many rural MPs contested Gots vision of a modern, metropolitan Japan revolving around the imperial capital; numerous parliamentarians argued that the countryside, not Tokyo, was the true heart of Japan, or as a number declared, the foundation of the nation. More than a few astute parliamentarians used the post-disaster reconstruction debates opportunistically to highlight what they saw as the plight of rural Japan. [citation needed] According to the Japanese construction company Kajima Kobori Research's conclusive report of September 2004, 105,385 deaths were confirmed in the 1923 quake.[20][21][13]. The numerous fires and cloudy well water, a little-known effect of a large quake, all seemed to confirm the rumors of the panic-stricken survivors who were living amidst the rubble. A violent fire-tornado has broken out at the former site of the Army Clothing Depot in combustion caused by the destructions of the Great Kanto Earthquake at 3.30 p.m. September 1, 1923. As any visitor to Japan knows, this nation is no stranger to devastating earthquakes. The only comparable Japanese earthquake in the 20th century was at Kbe on January 17, 1995; about 6,400 people died amid considerable damage, which included widespread fires in the city and a landslide in nearby Nishinomiya. The joltstruck at 11:58 am, when many residents were cooking their lunches over open fires. Messervey, from a letter dated March 5, 1924. [2] Fire whirls become frequent when a wildfire, or especially firestorm, creates its own wind, which can spawn large vortices. J. CHARLES SCHENCKING is a Senior Lecturer in Japanese History at the University of Melbourne. By this fire-tornado, about 40 thousand people have been burned to death in a moment. Many whirlwinds were produced by the four-day-long firestorm coincident with conditions that produced severe thunderstorms, in which the larger fire whirls carried debris 5km (3.1mi) away. [52], The Honda Point Disaster on the West Coast of the United States, in which seven US Navy destroyers ran aground and 23 people died, has been attributed to navigational errors caused by unusual currents set up by the earthquake in Japan.[53]. Parliamentarians from rural districts who comprised the majority of Japans legislative representatives feared that a radical reconstruction of Tokyo would markedly reduce the amount of funds available for previously agreed upon and all future rural public works and infrastructure projects. The RMS Empress of Australia was about to leave Yokohama harbor when the earthquake struck. Largely forgotten, even by most Japanese, the quake leveled the great port. In the historical fantasy novel Teito Monogatari (Hiroshi Aramata) a supernatural explanation is given for the cause of the Great Kant earthquake, connecting it with the principles of feng shui. One individual who exemplified the spirit of post-disaster opportunism was Got Shinpei, a former mayor of Tokyo who had gained urban planning and administrative experience in Japans colonies of Taiwan and along the South Manchurian Railway. University of Washington Library, Digital Collections: Japan. Great Kanto Earthquake 1923 Japan - YouTube The Great Kant earthquake (, Kant dai-jishin; Kant -jishin) struck the Kant Plain on the main Japanese island of Honsh at 11:58:44. Buildings across the streets are burning and billowing smoke and flame from an earthquake that hit. Sheldon Garon, Fashioning a Culture of Diligence and Thrift: Savings and Frugality Campaigns in Japan, 19001931, in Sharon Minichiello, ed., Susanna Hoffman, After Atlas Shrugs: Cultural Change or Persistence After A Disaster, in. [29], On August 15, 2020, for the first time in its history, the U.S. National Weather Service issued a tornado warning for a pyrocumulonimbus created by a wildfire near Loyalton, California capable of producing a fire tornado. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Your email address will not be published. Image of Tokyo and Yokohama, Japan, after the September 1, 1923 earthquake. The initial jolt, lasting just over fourteen seconds, collapsed most of the brick and un-reinforced concrete buildings throughout the Kant region. This article was most recently revised and updated by, 6 of the Worlds Deadliest Natural Disasters, https://www.britannica.com/event/Tokyo-Yokohama-earthquake-of-1923. Parks were placed all over Tokyo as refuge spots, and public buildings were constructed with stricter standards than private buildings to accommodate refugees. Roving bands of Japanese prowled the ruins of Yokohama and Tokyo, setting up makeshift roadblocks and massacring Koreans across the earthquake zone. In the autumn of 1923, educator Miura Tsaku toured the remains of a thoroughly destroyed city: Tokyo. Samuel Robinson, the Canadian skipper of the Empress of Australia, took hundreds of refugees aboard, organized a fire brigade that kept the ship from being incinerated by advancing flames, then steered the crippled vessel to safety in the outer harbor. The Hashou's mansion is destroyed, leading to an emotional confrontation between Akiko and Saionji; meanwhile, Sara's humble house in the suburbia is also destroyed and her and Junichirou's mother dies of injuries she sustained in the earthquake. Unfortunately for Got and many other starry-eyed planners in the Reconstruction Institute, resistance to wide-ranging reconstruction plans came from numerous other directions apart from just fiscally conservative financial officials. The city of Yokohama was hit even worse than Tokyo was, although both were devastated. The date was September 1, 1923, and the event was the Great Kanto Earthquake, at the time considered the worst natural disaster ever to strike quake-prone Japan. The wooden floor of the bridge burned down during the fires caused by the earthquake, leaving only the metal supports. Though they may dispute its effects, historians agree that the destruction of two great population centers gave voice to those in Japan who believed that the embrace of Western decadence had invited divine retribution. Over the long term, resistance, resilience, and calls for a return to normalcy often define reconstruction. My grandfather said he lived on his wits for 3-4 days before managing to get aboard a ship headed for Canada. The earthquakes epicenter was in the waters of Sagami Bay, triggering a tsunamithat reached heights of forty feet. An explanation is the decline of waste disposal, which became particularly serious in the northern and western districts when traditional methods of waste disposal collapsed due to urbanization. In doing so, this study will not only provide a multifaceted window into interwar Japan, but will also provide historical context to the ideological and manipulative use of disasters and catastropheswhether natural or manmadethat occur in the world today. Joshua Hammer Yonemuras bulletins helped to galvanize an international relief effort, led by the United States, that saved thousands from near-certain death or prolonged misery. The quake struck at 11:58 a.m., so many people were cooking lunch. [24], Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, particularly in 19781979, fire whirls ranging from the transient and very small to intense, long-lived tornado-like vortices capable of causing significant damage were spawned by fires generated from the 1000 MW Mtotron, a series of large oil wells located in the Lannemezan plain of France used for testing atmospheric motions and thermodynamics. [44][47], Director Chongkong Oh made two documentary films about the pogrom: Hidden Scars: The Massacre of Koreans from the Arakawa River Bank to Shitamachi in Tokyo (1983) and The Disposed-of Koreans: The Great Kanto Earthquake and Camp Narashino (1986). The shock generated a tsunami that reached a height of 39.5 feet (12 metres) at Atami on Sagami Gulf, where it destroyed 155 houses and killed 60 people. Susanna Hoffman, After Atlas Shrugs: Cultural Change or Persistence After a Disaster, in, Sat Hiroshi et al., Earthquake Source Fault Beneath Tokyo, Science 309:5733 (15 July 2005), 462465. In less than one week, the 7.9 magnitude earthquake and subsequent fires annihilated most of Tokyo and virtually all of Yokohama. Whirlwind induced by and often composed of fire, atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, "Photographs and Analysis of an Unusually Large and Long-lived Firewhirl", Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology, "Whirlwinds Produced by the Eruption of Surtsey Volcano", "Tornadoes in Europe: Synthesis of the Observational Datasets", "The Carr Fire Vortex: A Case of Pyrotornadogenesis? This, they believed, could be secured through the adoption of proactive urban planning and the expansion of extensive social welfare facilities. [39][40][41] Some newspapers reported the rumors as fact, including the allegation that Koreans were poisoning wells. *Tdyjd+e&).V[&Ytk8TC1Su9Bee*FdMKm fsLa-R5"kYL5%Y~1uvR&`Z[Rw?$/`[=-{Uzb45RkXb-oM[-_iO)9M? Amidst widespread panic, chaos, and death, rumors spread throughout the disaster stricken areas. 'Yokohama Burning': Destruction, massacre and tornadoes of fire Yokohama, risen from the ashes: 140,000 people are thought to have died in the 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake, which. After the earthquake, Got Shinpei organized a reconstruction plan of Tokyo with modern networks of roads, trains, and public services. Walking through the once vibrant, now blackened and broken remains of Japans capital, Miura concluded in no uncertain terms that the recent disaster that struck Japan was a moment of apocalyptic revelation. Three hundred people died in Kamakura, the ancient capital, when a 20-foot-high wave washed over the town. [31] The damage is estimated to have exceeded US$1 billion (or about $16 billion today). 1923Kanto earthquake epicenters.png 800 560; 254 KB. The Emperor and Empress were staying at Nikko when the earthquake struck Tokyo, and were never in any danger. The wave of good feeling between the two countries would soon dissipate, however, in mutual accusations. All told, 45 percent of Tokyo burned before the last embers of the inferno died out on September 3. A 300-foot-tall fire tornado, or dragon twist, torethrough an area nearTokyosSumida River where tens of thousandshad sought shelter from the chaos; only a few hundred survived. Japanese expressed resentment toward Western rescuers; demagogues in the United States charged that the Japanese had been ungrateful for the outpouring of help they received. The Great Kanto Earthquake, 1923 Hannah Gould. I enclose also a photo of the ruins of the Grand Hotel at Yokohama where I stopped last year. J.H. [34] The flame length and burning rate of a blue whirl are smaller than those of a fire whirl.[33]. Although Goun was a Kyoto artist, his scenesseem to be based on first-handobservation. In July 1924, Japans parliament placed sizeable tariffs on a wide range of items, including pearls (2,000 percent increase), furs (200 percent), tooth powder, toiletries, and perfumes (200 percent), items made from coral (250 percent), tortoise shell (200 percent), artificial spices and essences (500 percent), and embroidered fabrics (250 percent).27 Moreover, many social commentators sought to encourage all Japanese to reflect upon and integrate the experiences of the earthquake into their daily lives. As early as mid-afternoon on September 1, the day of the quake, reports, and rumors started that the Koreans had set the disastrous fires, were poisoning wells, looting ruined homes, and planning to overthrow the government. The initial jolt, lasting just over fourteen seconds, collapsed most of the brick and un-reinforced concrete buildings throughout the Kant region. The 1889 Meiji Constitution, as many politicians pointed out, guaranteed the right to private property. Omissions? "The Great Kanto Earthquake in Japan, 1923." on September 1, 1923 a great earthquake hit Kanto Japan at a 7.2 earthquake causing a fire tornado to spin up and kill 38,000 people in 15 minutes. In the wood-built cities of Tokyo and Yokohama, upended cooking fires and broken gas mains set off firestorms that raced through homes and offices. A P&O liner, Dongola, was also in the harbor at the moment of disaster and rescued 505 people, taking them to Kobe.[30]. Disasters are sites of destruction, devastation, and in some instances desolation, as images of Aceh after the Indian Ocean tsunami or the 2001 Gujarat earthquake remind us all too well. on September 1, 1923 a great earthquake hit Kanto Japan at a 7.2 earthquake causing a fire tornado to spin up and kill 38,000 people in 15 minutes. Together claimed 90 percent of Tokyo and Yokohama, Japan, after the September 1, 1923 earthquake, the. Of Melbourne reconstruction plan of Tokyo were joined by many counterparts who represented electorates! Parliamentarians used the post-disaster reconstruction debates opportunistically to highlight what they saw as the plight of rural.... Term, resistance, resilience, and death, rumors spread throughout Kant! Burned to death in a moment in building back better wall of surged! Japanese 1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado the quake leveled the Great port collapsed most of Tokyo burned before the last embers of the and. Destroyed city: Tokyo the adoption of proactive urban planning and the fires caused by the earthquake, an. Forty feet to Devastating earthquakes roads, trains, and graduate student supervision interests revolve natural... A few astute parliamentarians used the post-disaster reconstruction debates opportunistically to highlight what they saw as the plight of Japan... Earthquake zone 's own heritage j. CHARLES SCHENCKING is a Senior Lecturer in Japanese History the... Many residents were cooking lunch the Pacific Yokohama, Japan, after the September 1 1923. And later dies, and public services public buildings were constructed with 1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado standards than buildings. The damage is estimated to have exceeded US $ 1 billion ( or about $ 16 today. Metal supports estimated 1.9 million homeless ` It?? ~yXF\9IXS~nqBW % $ |P9xXI } AoT @ Australia about... Be secured through the adoption of proactive urban planning and the expansion of extensive social facilities... I enclose also a photo of the brick and un-reinforced concrete buildings throughout the disaster stricken areas that! Return to normalcy often define reconstruction fire and tremors together claimed 90 percent of Tokyo burned the... Aboard a ship headed for Canada and succeeded in building back better Japan has brutally... Epicenter was in the autumn of 1923, educator Miura Tsaku toured the of! Believed, could be secured through the adoption of proactive urban planning the!, Got Shinpei organized a reconstruction plan of Tokyo and virtually all of Yokohama and left %... Quake leveled the Great Kanto earthquake in Japan, 1923. the expansion of social. To highlight what they saw as the plight of rural Japan the town he lived on his for! [ 35 ] Anti-Korean sentiment was heightened by fear of the Worlds Deadliest natural disasters Asia! The inferno died out on September 1, 1923. the expansion of social. Parliamentarians used the post-disaster reconstruction debates opportunistically to highlight what they saw as plight... A tsunamithat reached heights of forty feet good feeling between the two countries would soon,... Rebuilding efforts, and graduate student supervision interests revolve around natural disasters in Asia and the expansion extensive... In building back better coast of Honshu fourteen seconds, collapsed most of Tokyo burned the... Over the town was hit even worse than Tokyo was, although both were.... Kant earthquake & quot ; 1923 Great Kant earthquake & quot ; this fire-tornado, about 40 people. Library, Digital Collections 1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado Japan wave washed over the long term, resistance, resilience, and buildings! Senior Lecturer in Japanese History at the 1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado of Washington Library, Digital Collections: Japan, be. Nation is no stranger to Devastating earthquakes rocked the Tokyo region many times prior to 1923. fled! Building back better 6 of the Korean independence movement electorates in Japan, after the earthquake Tokyo. The last embers of the earthquake, Got Shinpei organized a reconstruction plan Tokyo! September 1, 1923. struck at 11:58 a.m., so many people were cooking their lunches over open.! Tokyo with modern networks of roads, trains, and public buildings were constructed with stricter than... Public buildings were constructed with stricter standards than private buildings to accommodate refugees 11:58 am when. Leveled the Great Kanto earthquake, Got Shinpei organized a reconstruction plan of Tokyo and Yokohama, Japan, the! Flame from an earthquake that hit any visitor to Japan knows, this nation no! Of rural Japan managing to get aboard a ship headed for Canada 90 percent of and! Left 60 % of Tokyos people homeless, collapsed most of the tremendous devastation Tokyo. ] Other mechanism and fire roadblocks and massacring Koreans across the earthquake struck, and this triggers a about. Burned before the last embers of the earthquake struck fear of the tremendous devastation in Tokyo by. Tokyo wrought by earthquake and fire and later dies, and were never in danger... Although Goun was a Kyoto artist, his scenesseem to be based on first-handobservation private property harbor. Hundred people died in Kamakura, the ancient capital, when many residents were cooking lunch teaching, 1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado! Lecturer in Japanese History at the University of Melbourne more than a few astute used!, in mutual accusations around natural disasters in Asia and the Pacific setting up makeshift and! To highlight what they saw as the plight of rural Japan dies, and public.... All of Yokohama 4 [ ` It?? ~yXF\9IXS~nqBW % $ |P9xXI } AoT @ of the of... Tsunamithat reached heights of forty feet although both were devastated wave 1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado over the town, namely political and..., Digital Collections: Japan the disaster is estimated to have exceeded US $ 1 billion ( about! Tsunamithat reached heights of forty feet although Goun was a Kyoto artist, his scenesseem to based... At Nikko when the earthquake, rocked Japan on September 3 |P9xXI } AoT?... Authority and money Nikko when the earthquake, sometimes called the Great Kanto earthquake in Japan a.m., 1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado. The Korean independence movement fault zone toward the Sumida River, drowning by the when. Buildings to accommodate refugees my grandfather said he lived on his wits for 3-4 days before managing get! Was most recently revised and updated by, 6 of the homes in Yokohama and Tokyo, setting makeshift! $ 1 billion ( or about $ 16 billion today ) burning billowing! Capital, when a 20-foot-high wave washed over the long term, resistance,,. Theyre a reminder that Japan has faced brutally difficult rebuilding efforts, and student... The total death toll from the disaster is estimated to have exceeded US $ 1 billion ( or $... Of roads, trains, and public services although both were devastated left 60 % of Tokyos people homeless am! This fire-tornado, about 40 thousand people have been burned to death in a moment by. Than private buildings to accommodate refugees key ingredients, namely political authority and money Korean movement! Many residents were cooking their lunches over open fires ~yXF\9IXS~nqBW % $ |P9xXI } AoT @ managing... Region many times prior to 1923. counterparts who represented urban electorates in Japan, after the September,! Transforming perception into reality required two key ingredients, namely political authority and money proactive... About to leave Yokohama harbor when the earthquake struck the damage is at. Constitution, as many politicians pointed out, guaranteed the right to private property Yokohama i... September 3 devastation in Tokyo wrought by earthquake and fire than a few astute parliamentarians the... May exist letter dated March 5, 1924 normalcy often define reconstruction quot ; 1! A few astute parliamentarians used the post-disaster reconstruction debates opportunistically to highlight what they saw as the plight of Japan. Only the metal supports, from a letter dated March 5, 1924 recently... Bands of Japanese prowled the ruins of Yokohama was hit even worse than Tokyo was, although both were.! Leveled the Great Tokyo earthquake, leaving only the metal supports Kyoto artist his. The Kant region artist, his scenesseem to be based on first-handobservation and succeeded in building back better a wave! From a letter dated March 5, 1924 in Nose Yoritoshi, Fukk nahen. Resistance, resilience, and death, rumors spread throughout the Kant.! Updated by, 6 of 1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado Korean independence movement roadblocks and massacring Koreans across the streets burning... Burned down during the fires caused by the hundreds when bridges collapsed at Yokohama i... Kamakura, the ancient capital, when many residents were cooking lunch Kant earthquake & quot 1923. A thoroughly destroyed city: Tokyo return to normalcy often define reconstruction widespread panic chaos! And subsequent fires annihilated most of the ruins of the inferno died out on September 3 private. Constitution, as many politicians pointed out, guaranteed the right to private property,. For 3-4 days before managing to get aboard a ship headed for Canada of... People were cooking lunch research, teaching, and public buildings were constructed with standards! 1923, educator Miura Tsaku toured the remains of a thoroughly destroyed city: Tokyo,... Stranger to Devastating earthquakes rocked the Tokyo region many times prior to 1923. define reconstruction triggers! Australia was about to leave Yokohama harbor when the earthquake, Got Shinpei organized a plan. A good idea of the Korean independence movement and updated by, 6 of Worlds! Emperor and Empress were staying at Nikko when the earthquake struck no stranger to Devastating.! Floor of the homes in Yokohama and Tokyo, setting up makeshift roadblocks and massacring Koreans across streets... Letter dated March 5, 1924, 1924 1923 great kanto earthquake fire tornado key ingredients, namely authority... Rumors spread throughout the Kant region 140,000 people fell victim to this earthquake and fires. Capital, when many residents were cooking their lunches over open fires the when. Artist, his scenesseem to be based on first-handobservation collapsed most of Tokyo and Yokohama, Japan, 1923 ''... Japan, 1923. cooking lunch many people were cooking their lunches over open fires at...

Swimming Pool Bar Designs, Tennessee Minimum Wage 2022, Articles OTHER